The Exclusive Society: Social ExclusionThe process by which individuals or groups are systematically pushed to the margins of society., Crime and Difference in Late Modernity (1999) is a foundational work of late modern criminology by British sociologist and criminologist Jock Young. In this influential book, Young links rising crime rates and moral panics to processes of social exclusion, insecurity, and inequality in advanced capitalist societies. Challenging both leftist optimism and right-wing law-and-order discourses, the work is widely regarded as a cornerstone of the sociology of late modernity and a pivotal contribution to the cultural and critical criminological canon.
Key Points
The Exclusive Society by Jock Young
Main Author: Jock Young (1942–2013)
First Published: 1999
Country: United Kingdom
Key Idea: Young explores how late modern societies produce insecurity, fear of crime, and exclusion through rising inequality, consumerism, and punitive politics. CrimeActs or omissions that violate criminal laws and are punishable by the state. and social disorder become symbols of deeper societal anxieties.
Foundation for: Cultural and critical criminology, especially theories on exclusion, moral panics, and the intersection of media, fear, and control. Closely connected to Stuart Hall, Jeff Ferrell, and left realist criminology.
Key Arguments
1. Social ExclusionThe social process of marginalizing individuals or groups, limiting their access to resources, rights, and participation. as a Criminogenic Force:
Jock Young argues that the rise in crime and insecurity in late modern societies must be understood as a direct consequence of growing social exclusion. Unlike the post-war welfare era, which was characterized by inclusion and collective upward mobility, late modernity is defined by fragmentation, inequality, and marginalization. As the gap between the included and excluded widens, many individuals—especially the young, poor, and racialized—are pushed to the social margins, where they lack access to stable employment, housing, and social recognition. Crime, in this context, becomes a response to structural dislocation and a way to navigate exclusionary conditions.
2. The “Bulimic SocietyA group of individuals connected by shared institutions, culture, and norms.”:
Young introduces the metaphor of a “bulimic society” to describe the contradictions of consumer capitalism. This society constantly bombards its members with images of wealth, success, and consumption, but simultaneously denies large portions of the population access to these rewards. Just as someone with bulimia binges and purges, the modern consumer society invites everyone to desire more while systematically excluding many from legitimate participation. This cultural contradiction produces widespread frustration, humiliation, and resentment, which in turn generate deviant responses—particularly among youth who feel cheated by the promises of meritocracy and equal opportunity.
3. Crime as a Form of Communication:
Rather than viewing crime purely as an act of need or pathology, Young interprets it as a symbolic act—a form of communication. In this view, criminal behavior often expresses deep emotional and social grievances. Acts such as vandalism, gang violence, or theft can be understood as ways of reclaiming status, asserting identity, or resisting marginalization. These performances of deviance serve to highlight the disjuncture between social ideals (such as success and respect) and the lived realities of those denied access to them. In this sense, crime becomes a way of “doing identity” in an alienating and unequal world.
4. Moral Panics and the Politics of Insecurity:
Young explores how political actors and the media generate and sustain public fear through moral panics—amplified narratives that portray certain groups (e.g., immigrants, youth, the unemployed) as dangerous threats to social order. These moral panics serve strategic purposes: they distract from structural inequalities, justify increased surveillance and punitive policies, and consolidate political power. In response, governments adopt tough-on-crime rhetoric and expand their coercive apparatuses, which paradoxically exacerbates exclusion rather than addressing its root causes. The result is a self-reinforcing cycle: exclusion fuels crime, crime fuels fear, and fear fuels repression.
Connections to Other Theories
Left Realism:
As one of the founding figures of Left Realist criminology, Jock Young builds on the insights developed in earlier works like The New CriminologyThe scientific study of crime, criminal behavior, prevention, and societal reactions to deviance within and beyond the criminal justice system. (1973) and What is to be Done About LawA system of codified rules and sanctions recognized by the state. and Order? (1984). While maintaining a critique of structural inequalities, Left Realism also emphasizes the real impact of crime—especially on marginalized communities. The Exclusive Society expands this framework by incorporating cultural and emotional dimensions of exclusion, thus bridging structural and symbolic approaches to crime.
Left Realism is a critical criminological approach that emerged in the 1980s in response to both the punitive politics of the New Right and what it saw as the overly idealistic tendencies of earlier critical criminology. Developed primarily by scholars such as Jock Young, John Lea, and Roger Matthews, Left Realism seeks to address the real impact of crime on working-class and marginalized communities while simultaneously emphasizing the structural roots of criminal behavior—particularly social inequality, relative deprivation, and social exclusion.At its core, Left Realism argues that crime is not just a social construction or a tool of state repression, but a genuine problem that disproportionately affects the poor. It emphasizes the need for a balanced and practical response to crime—one that acknowledges both the harm caused by criminal acts and the broader societal conditions that foster them. Key themes include the analysis of relative deprivation as a driver of crime, the recognition of victims’ experiences (especially in disadvantaged communities), and a call for democratic accountability in policing and criminal justice institutions.
Rather than endorsing either punitive “law and order” solutions or total abolitionist positions, Left Realism advocates for progressive reforms aimed at making society more equitable and justice systems more responsive to community needs. The approach has strongly influenced later developments in critical and cultural criminology, and forms the theoretical backbone of Jock Young’s The Exclusive Society.
Cultural CriminologyA perspective that studies crime and control as cultural products shaped by meaning, emotion, and symbolism.:
Young’s concept of crime as a form of communication and identity performance strongly influenced the emergence of Cultural Criminology. This perspective, later systematized by scholars like Jeff Ferrell, Keith Hayward, and Jock Young himself, views crime as a meaningful practice embedded in cultural, emotional, and aesthetic contexts. The book thus serves as a conceptual bridge between Left Realism and Cultural Criminology.
Late Modernity and Risk SocietyA concept describing a society increasingly preoccupied with managing and mitigating risks, particularly those arising from technological and environmental changes.:
Young’s diagnosis of social fragmentation and exclusion is closely aligned with other theorists of late modernity, such as Ulrich Beck and Zygmunt Bauman. His analysis resonates with the concept of the “risk society” and the growing preoccupation with security and control in neoliberal democracies. These parallels situate The Exclusive Society within a broader theoretical effort to understand the transformations of social order at the end of the 20th century.
Jock Young’s Trilogy of Late Modernity
Jock Young’s late works are often understood as a loose trilogy addressing the social, cultural, and criminological consequences of late modernity. Together, these three books form a critical diagnosis of contemporary society marked by exclusion, disorientation, and the erosion of social solidarity.
- The Exclusive Society (1999): Focuses on the rise of social exclusion, increasing insecurity, and the expansion of punitive crime control. Young argues that crime and disorder are rooted in growing inequalities and the breakdown of traditional structures.
- The Vertigo of Late Modernity (2007): Examines the cultural anxieties, moral uncertainties, and identity crises produced by rapid social change. Young explores how individuals experience “vertigo” in a world of fluid norms and overstimulation.
- The Criminological Imagination (2011): A call to reinvigorate criminology by reconnecting it with broader social theory. Young criticizes the methodological narrowness and political disengagement of mainstream criminology and advocates for a more reflexive, imaginative approach.
Together, the trilogy offers a powerful analysis of late modern society and lays the foundation for a critical, engaged, and sociologically informed criminology.
Critical Reception and Legacy
The Exclusive Society is widely regarded as a landmark contribution to critical criminology. It has been praised for its interdisciplinary scope, theoretical depth, and vivid sociological imagination. Young’s ability to synthesize economic, cultural, and emotional dimensions of exclusion has made the book highly influential in criminological debates on inequality, identity, and punishment. It has also served as an intellectual foundation for more recent discussions about populism, authoritarianism, and the penal state.
Critics have occasionally noted that the book’s theoretical ambitions can lead to analytical complexity, and some have questioned whether the “bulimic society” metaphor is empirically grounded. Nonetheless, Young’s core insight—that crime cannot be separated from the social conditions that generate it—remains a powerful argument against simplistic, punitive responses to deviance.
References
- Young, J. (1999). The Exclusive Society: Social Exclusion, Crime and Difference in Late Modernity. London: SAGE.
- Garland, D. (2001). The Culture of Control. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Ferrell, J., Hayward, K., & Young, J. (2008). Cultural Criminology: An Invitation. London: SAGE.
- Beck, U. (1986). Risikogesellschaft. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.
