James W. Messerschmidt – Crime as Structured Action (1993)

In CrimeActs or omissions that violate criminal laws and are punishable by the state. as Structured Action, James W. Messerschmidt presents a groundbreaking theory that interweaves criminology with gender studies, particularly the sociology of masculinity. Rejecting simplistic correlations between gender and crime, Messerschmidt proposes that criminal behavior can serve as a means of accomplishing masculinity—especially when socially legitimate paths to hegemonic masculinity are blocked. His approach is both structural and interactionist, emphasizing that crime is not just the result of individual choices but is shaped by broader social structures and intersecting inequalities.

Key Points

Core Concepts

Structured Action:
At the heart of Messerschmidt’s theory lies the concept of structured action, which refers to the idea that social practices—including criminal behavior—are both constrained by structural conditions and enacted through individual choices. Crime is not simply the outcome of external pressures or internal dispositions, but rather a practice that individuals undertake within the limits and opportunities presented by their social environment. Structures such as class stratification, racial hierarchies, and gender norms shape the context in which people act, but individuals actively construct their responses to these conditions.

Hegemonic Masculinity:
Building on R. W. Connell’s work, Messerschmidt argues that hegemonic masculinity functions as an aspirational standard of what it means to be “a real man”—a standard defined by authority, economic success, heterosexual prowess, and emotional stoicism. For many men—especially those who are socially marginalized—these ideals remain unattainable through conventional means. In such cases, crime becomes a compensatory practice: a way to assert dominance, control, and toughness when legitimate avenues to masculine status (like stable employment or educational success) are blocked. Criminal acts, particularly those involving violence or risk, thus become symbolic performances of masculinity.

Gender as Performance:
Messerschmidt emphasizes that gender is not a fixed trait but an ongoing accomplishment—something that must be continuously „done“ through social interaction. Within this framework, crime can be understood as a form of gender performance. For instance, young men in gang environments may enact hypermasculine behaviors—such as aggression, territorial defense, or sexual conquest—to validate their masculinity in the eyes of peers. These performances are context-specific and shaped by subcultural norms, institutional expectations, and peer group dynamics.

Intersectionality:
A major strength of Messerschmidt’s framework is its incorporation of intersectional analysis. The theory acknowledges that expressions of masculinity are not uniform, but vary depending on how individuals are positioned along axes of race, class, and sexuality. For example, white middle-class men may engage in corporate crime as a way to assert dominance in competitive economic environments, while working-class men of color may resort to street-level offenses to achieve similar ends under conditions of systemic exclusion. This attention to structural variability allows for a nuanced understanding of how masculinity is constructed differently across social locations—and how crime may serve as a gendered strategy adapted to specific circumstances.

Case Examples

Messerschmidt illustrates his theory with a range of empirical examples, including:

• White, middle-class adolescent boys engaging in academic cheating or sexist behavior to assert control within school settings.
• Working-class men resorting to bar fights or domestic violence to reaffirm a sense of masculine authority.
• GangA group with shared identity and solidarity, often associated with crime or deviance in public perception.-involved youth using violence and criminal entrepreneurship to construct identities of respect and power in marginalized communities.

Relevance and Impact

Crime as Structured Action had a profound impact on critical criminology and gender studies. It challenged essentialist and biologically determinist views of gender, introducing a dynamic and relational model of masculinity and criminality. The book also inspired the development of the concept of „masculinities in transition,“ reflecting how men navigate shifting gender expectations in different contexts.

Messerschmidt’s work remains highly influential for contemporary discussions on gender, crime, and violence. It has been expanded in later works such as Masculinities and Crime (1995, with R. W. Connell) and Hegemonic Masculinity: Formulation, Reformulation, and Amplification (2016, with Connell).

Connections to Other Theories

Feminist Criminology:
Messerschmidt’s work is often situated within the broader context of feminist criminology, particularly because it takes gender—and more specifically, masculinity—as a central analytic category. Like Frances Heidensohn and Pat Carlen, Messerschmidt critiques mainstream criminology for its gender-blind assumptions. However, whereas early feminist theorists focused on the neglect of women in criminological research, Messerschmidt explores how men use crime to do gender—a concept that complements feminist concerns with structural inequality and the gendered nature of deviance.

Power-Control TheoryControl theory explains criminal behavior by focusing on the absence or weakness of social bonds that normally prevent individuals from deviating.:
Messerschmidt’s approach shares conceptual ground with John Hagan’s PowerThe capacity to influence others and shape outcomes, even against resistance.-Control Theory, which links family structures and gender roles to patterns of delinquency. Both theories examine how masculinity and control intersect to produce different pathways into crime. While Power-Control Theory focuses more on parental authority and household dynamics, Messerschmidt broadens the lens to include peer cultures, labor markets, and racial hierarchies.

Cultural CriminologyA perspective that studies crime and control as cultural products shaped by meaning, emotion, and symbolism.:
Messerschmidt’s emphasis on crime as a performative act aligns with key assumptions of Cultural Criminology. Both approaches treat crime as a meaningful, symbolic practice embedded in everyday life. The performance of hegemonic masculinity—through violence, defiance, or territoriality—can be read as a cultural script enacted under conditions of exclusion, marginalization, or subcultural affiliation. Moreover, both frameworks emphasize the emotional and identity-affirming dimensions of deviance.

Intersectional Criminology:
The integration of intersectionality into Messerschmidt’s model mirrors developments in queer and critical race criminology. His analysis resonates strongly with Queer CriminologyA perspective that explores the intersection of sexuality, gender identity, and the criminal justice system., which also highlights how normative assumptions about gender and sexuality distort criminological inquiry. Messerschmidt’s work can be read as an early attempt to theorize the interplay of masculinity, race, class, and crime in a manner consistent with later intersectional critiques.

References

• Connell, R. W. (1995). Masculinities. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Messerschmidt, J. W. (1993). Masculinities and Crime: Critique and Reconceptualization of Theory. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
• Messerschmidt, J. W. (2016). Masculinities in the Making: From the Local to the Global. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
• Messerschmidt, J. W. (2020). Unpacking the Gendered Performance of Crime. In: Carrington, K., Dixon, B., Zajdow, G. (eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Criminology and the Global South. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Heidensohn, F. (1985). Women and Crime. London: Macmillan.
• Carlen, P. (1988). Women, Crime and Poverty. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
• Buist, C. L. & Lenning, E. (2015). Queer Criminology. New York: Routledge.
• Ferrell, J., Hayward, K., & Young, J. (2008). Cultural Criminology: An Invitation. London: SAGE.
• Hagan, J., Gillis, A. R., & Simpson, J. (1985). The Class Structure of Gender and Delinquency: Toward a Power-Control Theory of Common Delinquent Behavior. American Journal of Sociology, 90(6), 1151–1178.

Video