The Felon (1970) by American sociologist John Irwin is one of the most influential analyses of the lived realities of formerly incarcerated individuals. As a former inmate turned sociologist, Irwin combines personal experience with academic analysis. His central aim: to reconstruct the social processes through which ex-prisoners remain stigmatized as “criminals” and become socially marginalized even after release.
The Figure of the “Felon”
Irwin’s key concept is the “felon”—not merely a criminal offender, but a social identity produced and maintained by the penal system. Even after serving time, individuals remain marked as “ex-felons”: through criminal records, institutional barriers (e.g., employment or housing), and societal labeling. Irwin refers to this as secondary prisonization, which structurally shapes life after prison.
Instead of reintegration, the felon experiences permanent exclusion. Social roles acquired in prison persist in everyday life. Reentry into society is difficult, as the felon is burdened with a master status—a dominant social label that overrides all others—similar to Goffman’s concept of stigma.
Deviant Careers and Recidivism
Irwin shows that many offenders do not relapse due to a lack of morality or discipline, but because they face few realistic opportunities for social participation after release. Structural barriers such as employment discrimination, supervision by parole officers, or lack of housing reinforce the turn to illegitimate means. CrimeActs or omissions that violate criminal laws and are punishable by the state. becomes a rational response to an excluding society.
This insight makes The Felon a key text of Critical CriminologyA perspective that examines power, inequality, and social justice in understanding crime and the criminal justice system.. Irwin shifts the perspective: Instead of asking “Why do people become criminal?”, he asks “How does the system contribute to the persistence of crime?”
Insider Perspective and Research Ethics
Irwin’s insider perspective is particularly noteworthy. As a former prisoner, he knows the informal rules of prison life, its language, and the distrust of institutions. This experience shapes his interviews, analyses, and critical stance toward the penal system. His approach was later formalized under the label Convict CriminologyThe scientific study of crime, criminal behavior, prevention, and societal reactions to deviance within and beyond the criminal justice system. and further developed by scholars such as Stephen Richards and Jeffrey Ian Ross (see Ross & Richards 2003).
Irwin makes it clear that not neutrality, but partisanship on behalf of the affected can be a central research principle in critical prison studies. This attitude also shapes his later works such as Prisons in Turmoil (1980) and The Warehouse PrisonA prison is a secure institution where individuals are confined by the state as a form of punishment, pretrial detention, or social control. (2005).
Key Points
John Irwin – The Felon
Main proponent: John Irwin (1929–2010)
First published: 1970
Country: USA
Core idea: The identity of the “felon” is socially constructed by the penal system and maintained beyond incarceration. It hinders successful reintegration and promotes recidivism.
Foundation for: Prison sociology, critical criminology, deviance studies
Related theories: StigmaA social mark of disgrace that discredits individuals or groups based on perceived deviance. (Goffman), Labeling Approach (Becker), prison studies, Loïc Wacquant
Criticism and Reception
Irwin’s approach has been praised for its closeness to the lived realities of ex-prisoners and its radical critique of incarceration. Critics argue that his perspective is overly shaped by personal experience and lacks systematic comparability. Nevertheless, The Felon is considered a pioneering text of modern prison sociology and continues to be cited today—especially in research on mass incarceration and the social consequences of imprisonment.
Approach: Convict Criminology
Convict Criminology is a critical research approach within criminology, developed by formerly incarcerated individuals who later entered academia. Scholars such as John Irwin, Stephen Richards, and Jeffrey Ian Ross draw on their personal prison experiences to inform sociological analysis. The goal is to make knowledge “from below” visible and to challenge dominant, often detached perspectives on the penal system.
Key features of Convict Criminology include:
- a qualitative, ethnographic research orientation,
- a critical stance toward state repression and penal ideologies,
- and a commitment to social justice and reintegration.
This approach is part of Critical Criminology and advocates for a stronger inclusion of experiential knowledge in criminal justice policy-making.
Contemporary Relevance
The stigma of incarceration described by Irwin remains a pressing issue in the 21st century. In many countries, former inmates face legal, social, and psychological barriers. Especially in the United States, where millions have criminal records, the felon status shapes the reality of entire communities.
Example: Structural Recidivism
In the United States, about two-thirds of former inmates are re-incarcerated within three years of release. Studies show this is less due to individual factors than to systemic obstacles: unemployment, lack of social support, discrimination, and surveillance (see United States Department of Justice, n.d.).
References
- Becker, H. S. (1963). Outsiders. New York: Free Press.
- Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
- Irwin, J. (1970). The Felon. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
- Irwin, J. (1980). Prisons in Turmoil. Boston: Little, Brown.
- Irwin, J. (2005). The Warehouse Prison. Los Angeles: Roxbury.
- Ross, J. I. & Richards, S. C. (Eds.) (2003). Convict Criminology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
- United States Department of Justice (n.d.). Prisoners and Prisoner Re-Entry. https://www.justice.gov/archive/fbci/progmenu_reentry.html
- Wacquant, L. (2009). Punishing the Poor. Durham: Duke University Press.
Further Information
Obituary for John Irwin:
- The Sentencing Project (2010, January 5). John Irwin: Scholar, Activist, Convict Criminologist. https://web.archive.org/web/20110718181211/http://www.sentencingproject.org/detail/news.cfm?news_id=838&id=167
