Key Works in Criminology

Against Prediction: Profiling, Policing, and Punishing in an Actuarial Age (2007) is one of the key works by Bernard E. Harcourt and a foundational analysis of contemporary actuarial justice. Harcourt critiques the growing reliance on statistical risk assessment in criminal justice—particularly through police profiling, predictive policing, and risk-based sentencing. The book is a sharp critique

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Automating Inequality: How High-Tech Tools Profile, Police, and Punish the Poor is a groundbreaking work by political scientist and technologist Virginia Eubanks. Published in 2018, the book examines the rise of automated decision-making systems in public service sectors such as welfare, housing, and child protection. Eubanks argues that these technologies disproportionately target and penalize poor

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Thinking About Crime, published in 2004 by American criminologist Michael Tonry, offers a scathing critique of punitive crime control policies in the United States. Building on decades of policy analysis and empirical research, Tonry dismantles the assumptions underpinning the “tough on crime” agenda and argues for a more rational, evidence-based approach to criminal justice. The

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The Exclusive Society: Social Exclusion, Crime and Difference in Late Modernity (1999) is a foundational work of late modern criminology by British sociologist and criminologist Jock Young. In this influential book, Young links rising crime rates and moral panics to processes of social exclusion, insecurity, and inequality in advanced capitalist societies. Challenging both leftist optimism

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Crime Control as Industry: Towards GULAGS, Western Style? is one of the most influential works in critical criminology. Published in 1993 by Norwegian criminologist Nils Christie, the book delivers a stark critique of modern penal systems, particularly the alarming growth of incarceration in Western democracies. Christie likens the penal apparatus to a profit-oriented industry and

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In Crime as Structured Action, James W. Messerschmidt presents a groundbreaking theory that interweaves criminology with gender studies, particularly the sociology of masculinity. Rejecting simplistic correlations between gender and crime, Messerschmidt proposes that criminal behavior can serve as a means of accomplishing masculinity—especially when socially legitimate paths to hegemonic masculinity are blocked. His approach is

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