Outsiders, published in 1963 by Howard S. Becker, is one of the foundational works of labelling theory and the sociology of deviance. Becker analyzes how certain behaviors come to be defined as deviant, showing that deviance is not an inherent quality of an act but a result of social processes of definition, attribution, and enforcement. He pays special attention to the role of moral entrepreneurs who create and enforce new norms, labelling those who violate them as „outsiders“ and thereby shaping deviant identities through self-fulfilling prophecies.
Key Points
Outsiders by Howard S. Becker
Thierry Caro, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons
Main Proponent: Howard S. Becker
First Publication: 1963
Country of Origin: United States
Core Idea: DevianceDeviance refers to behaviors, beliefs, or characteristics that violate social norms and provoke negative social reactions. is not intrinsic to an act but results from its social definition as deviant. Norms are selectively created and enforced by moral entrepreneurs, producing outsiders through labelling processes.
Foundation For: Labelling Theory, Sociology of Deviance, Critical Criminology
Theory
Becker’s central thesis is that deviance is a product of social attribution rather than inherent in specific acts. He emphasizes that criminalization is a selective process operating at two levels:
- Selective CriminalizationThe process of defining and enforcing behaviors as criminal.: Not all potentially deviant behaviors are defined as such; moral entrepreneurs campaign to criminalize certain acts while ignoring others.
- Selective Enforcement: Even once norms exist, they are enforced unevenly, targeting specific groups more than others.
Becker illustrates this selectivity with his famous typology of deviant behavior:
| Obedient Behavior | Rule-breaking Behavior | |
|---|---|---|
| Perceived as deviant | Falsely Accused [false positive] | Pure Deviant |
| Not perceived as deviant | Conforming | Secret Deviant [false negative] |
(Becker, 1963: 20)
Becker chose the term „outsiders“ to capture how labeled individuals are symbolically excluded from mainstream society, reinforcing social boundaries between „normal“ and „deviant“ groups.
In Outsiders, Becker uses ethnographic research on marijuana users to demonstrate how moral entrepreneurs—campaigners, politicians, the media—can create new forms of deviance by criminalizing previously tolerated behavior. The labelling process has two key consequences:
- It justifies moral condemnation and punitive measures by authorities.
- It shapes the self-image of those labelled, encouraging them to internalize the deviant role—a process Becker describes as a self-fulfilling prophecy leading to secondary deviance.
„The deviant is one to whom that label has successfully been applied; deviant behavior is behavior that people so label.“
(Becker, 1963: 9)
Becker’s analysis builds on earlier labelling insights, notably Frank Tannenbaum’s concept of „tagging,“ which described how labeling processes can transform individuals’ self-perception, and Edwin Lemert’s distinction between primary and secondary deviance, which showed how societal reactions can escalate deviant careers. Becker expanded these ideas into a broader sociological framework that examines not only the effects of labels but also the power relations and cultural campaigns that define deviance in the first place.
Biographical Note: Becker’s Fieldwork Roots
Howard S. Becker’s approach to deviance was deeply shaped by his own early experiences in Chicago. As a sociology student at the University of Chicago in the 1940s and 1950s, Becker financed his education by playing piano in bars and jazz clubs. This side job was more than just a source of income—it became a form of fieldwork. In these venues, he interacted daily with jazz musicians, bartenders, and regular patrons, many of whom used marijuana or were seen as social outsiders by mainstream society.
Rather than condemning these individuals as criminals, Becker observed the complexity of their subcultures, their own moral codes, and the solidarity among members. He noticed that their „deviant“ behavior was not universally condemned even within their own circles and that labelling them as outsiders had real social consequences, including reinforcing their marginalization and shaping their identities.
These immersive experiences profoundly influenced Becker’s later research method—ethnography—and his conviction that deviance is not an inherent quality of any act, but a product of social definition and reaction. His time among jazz musicians laid the groundwork for his central insight in Outsiders (1963): that deviance emerges from processes of rule-making, selective enforcement, and the application of labels by „moral entrepreneurs“ seeking to define and control behavior in line with their own values.
Implications for Criminal Policy
Becker’s work marks a fundamental shift from etiological explanations of crime to an analysis of criminalization processes. He challenges the dominant mid-20th-century view that crime results from pathological types or subcultural socialization, as in Cohen’s Subculture Theory. Instead, Becker’s approach emphasizes the power relations and social interests behind the creation and enforcement of norms.
This critical perspective highlights the need to scrutinize the role of lawmakers, law enforcement, and broader cultural processes in defining crime. Policies informed by labelling theory may seek to limit stigmatization, address power imbalances in criminalization, and explore alternatives to punitive measures, such as decriminalization and restorative justice.
Moral Entrepreneurs in Becker’s Theory
Howard S. Becker introduced the concept of „moral entrepreneurs“ to highlight the active role of individuals and groups who campaign to define certain behaviors as deviant. These moral entrepreneurs mobilize public opinion, lobby lawmakers, and create or enforce new norms and laws. Their efforts often target practices they perceive as threatening, immoral, or socially harmful.
Examples include campaigns against drug use (e.g., cannabis prohibition), movements to censor music or art, or political initiatives to criminalize certain sexual behaviors. By emphasizing moral entrepreneurs, Becker’s theory goes beyond describing labelling processes to analyze who drives these processes and why. It reveals that definitions of deviance are neither neutral nor inevitable but are socially constructed and politically contested.
Critical Appraisal & Relevance
Although Becker described himself primarily as a sociologist and ethnographer rather than a criminologist, Outsiders is one of the most influential and frequently cited texts in the sociology of deviance. The book’s core insight—that deviance is a socially constructed label applied through unequal power relations—has profoundly shaped criminology, sociology, and critical theory.
Critics, however, argue that Becker’s approach risks romanticizing or trivializing crime by focusing on criminalization rather than harm. Becker himself addresses this criticism in his classic essay Whose Side Are We On? (1967), where he defends the need to examine the perspectives and experiences of marginalized groups. Despite critiques, Becker’s emphasis on the social processes that define and enforce deviance remains essential for understanding contemporary issues of stigma, discrimination, and criminal justice policy.
Becker’s framework also influenced later analyses of moral panics, media campaigns, and cultural criminology, which further examine how moral entrepreneurs and media narratives construct fears about deviance and mobilize punitive social reactions. His work remains a foundational reference for studying contemporary issues like drug policy, censorship, and the criminalization of marginalized communities.
Example of Application
A classic real-world illustration of Becker’s concept of moral entrepreneurship is the Parents‘ Music Resource Center (PMRC) campaign in the United States. In the 1980s, a group of politically connected activists (the „Washington wives“) successfully pressured the music industry to adopt the „Parental Advisory“ label to warn consumers about explicit lyrics. This moral crusade not only regulated distribution but also helped define certain musical expressions as socially dangerous or deviant.
- Chastagner, Claude (1999): The Parents‘ Music Resource Center: From Information to Censorship. In: Popular Music, 18(2), 179–192. Online
Literature
- Becker, Howard S. (1963): Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. New York: Free Press of Glencoe.
- Becker, Howard S. (1967): Whose Side Are We On? In: Social Problems, 14(3), 239-247.
Further Information
- Howard S. Becker’s personal website
- The Open University. Discovering disorder: young people and delinquency (free course). https://www.open.edu/openlearn/society-politics-law/discovering-disorder-young-people-and-delinquency/content-section-3.1
