Edwin M. Lemert’s concept of primary and secondary deviance is one of the most influential contributions to labelling theory. Building on symbolic interactionism and early ideas from Frank Tannenbaum’s „tagging“ concept, Lemert showed how social reactions to initial rule-breaking can shape identities and careers in deviance.
Key Points
Primary and Secondary Deviance
Main Proponent: Edwin M. Lemert
First Formulation: 1951 (developed further in 1967)
Country of Origin: United States
Core Idea: DevianceDeviance refers to behaviors, beliefs, or characteristics that violate social norms and provoke negative social reactions. is not static or inherent in the act itself. Primary deviance refers to initial rule-breaking that may go unnoticed or be rationalized. Secondary deviance emerges when social reactions and labelling transform occasional deviance into a central part of identity.
Foundation For: labelling theory, interactionist approaches, critical criminology
Theory
Lemert’s theory represents a key turning point in criminology, shifting the focus from the individual pathology of offenders to the social processes that create and reinforce deviance. Drawing on symbolic interactionism and influenced by Frank Tannenbaum’s idea of “tagging,” Lemert argued that societal reactions to deviance play a crucial role in transforming behaviour and identity over time.
Primary Deviance
Primary deviance describes initial acts of rule-breaking that stem from various social, cultural, or psychological factors. These acts may be minor, socially tolerated, or rationalized by the individual without impacting their self-image. Importantly, the deviant does not define themselves as deviant, maintaining a conventional role in society and a positive self-concept despite occasional violations of norms.
Secondary Deviance
Secondary deviance emerges through societal reaction and labelling. When rule-breaking is identified and publicly labelled as deviant or criminal, the individual faces stigma that challenges their self-image. To resolve this cognitive dissonance, the person may internalise the deviant label and adopt it as part of their identity, leading to sustained deviant behaviour. Lemert described this as a developmental process: social responses to initial acts of deviance escalate over time, reinforcing and stabilising a deviant role.
This insight highlights the paradox of social control: efforts to suppress deviance through punishment and labelling can unintentionally deepen it, creating deviant careers rather than preventing them.
Example: Primary and Secondary Deviance Explained
Primary deviance: Imagine a teenager who occasionally shoplifts small items with friends for the thrill. Although this is illegal, it is seen by the teenager as a one-time mistake or youthful mischief. They don’t view themselves as a „criminal“ and continue to see themselves as a normal member of society. Friends and family might overlook or excuse the behaviour as minor or typical teenage rebellion.
Secondary deviance: If the teenager is caught and formally labelled a „thief“ (e.g., through arrest, school suspension, gossip in the neighbourhood), the situation changes. The label sticks, and others begin to treat them with suspicion or rejection. The teen may internalise this label, see themselves as an outsider, and start associating with peers who have similar experiences. Over time, they may adopt stealing as a regular behaviour, embracing the deviant role that was initially imposed on them.
This process illustrates Lemert’s idea that while primary deviance is often situational and non-identity-defining, secondary deviance emerges when societal reactions and labelling transform occasional rule-breaking into a stable part of the individual’s self-concept and social role.
Critical Appraisal & Relevance
Lemert’s distinction between primary and secondary deviance remains one of the most influential frameworks in criminology. By analysing how societal reactions transform behaviour, he provided a dynamic, interactionist account of deviance that goes beyond static explanations rooted in individual pathology or structural inequality.
However, his approach also has limitations. Critics argue that Lemert downplays the causes of primary deviance, offering little explanation for why people initially break rules. While the model excels at describing how deviance becomes stabilised, it is less clear how it accounts for offences that do not involve labelling, such as covert crimes or premeditated violence. From the other end of the theoretical spectrum, radical labelling theorists have questioned the assumption that primary deviance exists at all, arguing that deviance is entirely constructed through social definitions and reactions.
It is also important to situate Lemert’s work historically. Building on Tannenbaum’s early insight that defining and emphasising deviant traits can produce the very behaviours they aim to suppress, Lemert formalised this into a developmental process of identity transformation. His ideas directly influenced Howard S. Becker’s labelling theory, which further explored the power dynamics and rule-making processes that shape definitions of deviance.
Implications for Criminal Policy
Labelling theory suggests that punitive social reactions can be counterproductive by reinforcing deviant identities. Policies informed by this perspective aim to minimise stigmatisation through measures such as decriminalisation, diversion, alternative conflict resolution, and reintegration. By avoiding unnecessary labelling, criminal justice systems can reduce the risk of creating entrenched deviant careers. These ideas have also inspired restorative justice practices that seek to repair harm without casting offenders as permanently deviant or criminal.
Literature
- Lemert, Edwin M. (1951). Social Pathology: A Systematic Approach to the Theory of Sociopathic Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Lemert, Edwin M. (1967). Human Deviance, Social Problems, and Social Control. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Further Information
- Obituary to Edwin M. Lemert: http://www.sonoma.edu/ccjs/info/Edintro.html
