Sociology & Criminology for a Changing World
Systems theory in sociology does not understand society as a collection of individuals, but as an autonomous system of communication. Actions, actors, and institutions are not the primary units of analysis—instead, communication itself is the central, self-referential process. With this shift, systems theory departs from both action-oriented and normative-integrative approaches. Society is not explained through
Functionalism (and its structural-functional variant) understands society as a structured system of functionally interconnected elements that contribute to the maintenance of social order. Institutions, roles, and norms are not primarily explained by individual motives or situational meanings, but by the functions they fulfill for stability, integration, and the coordination of action. At the center lies
Classical sociology establishes the central axes of tension in modern social theory. In response to industrialization, capitalism, political revolution, and secularization, the 19th and early 20th centuries produced different answers to a fundamental question: How is social order possible under the conditions of modernity? Sociology emerges as the science of a society that can no
Sociological theories do not primarily differ in their subject matter, but in how they respond to fundamental problems of social order. They address, in different ways, how society is possible, how stability is maintained, how power operates—and what role individuals play within these processes. At the core are recurring axes of tension: Structure vs. agency
Policing does not simply mean the police. While the police are the most visible and influential agents of policing, the term refers more broadly to the diverse practices and institutions through which authority is exercised to maintain security, enforce laws, and regulate everyday life. Social order, in turn, describes the stability of social interactions, guided
Émile Durkheim’s The Rules of Sociological Method (1895) marks a milestone in establishing sociology as an autonomous, empirical discipline. While earlier approaches were often philosophical or speculative, Durkheim formulated the foundations for systematic research based on observable, verifiable data. The work remains central for understanding the scientific core of sociology and the role of objective