System Theory

Explanation

System theory is a framework for understanding complex, differentiated social orders. Building on cybernetics and biological models, sociological system theory (notably by Talcott Parsons and Niklas Luhmann) examines how systems create boundaries between themselves and their environment. Parsons focused on functional integration through roles and norms, while Luhmann emphasized operational closure and communication as the core of social systems. In Luhmann’s approach, social systems are self-referential (autopoietic) and reproduce themselves through continuous communication. System theory highlights differentiation (e.g., legal, political, economic systems), complexity reduction, and the challenge of maintaining integration without central control.