Victimology and Victimisation

VictimologyThe scientific study of victims, their experiences, and their interaction with the criminal justice system. is the scientific study of victims of crime, their experiences, and their interactions with offenders, society, and the criminal justice system. As a subfield of criminology, it emerged in the mid-20th century and has since developed into an independent research tradition. Victimisation, by contrast, refers to the process and experience of becoming a victim. Together, both concepts are crucial for understanding crime not only from the perspective of perpetrators but also from the perspective of those who suffer harm.

Key Points

Historical Development

The origins of victimology can be traced back to the works of Hans von Hentig (1948) and Benjamin Mendelsohn (1956), who emphasized the importance of victim–offender relationships and introduced the idea of „victim typologies.“

For much of legal history, however, victims played only a marginal role in criminal proceedings—primarily as witnesses for the prosecution. It was not until the social changes of the 1960s and 1970s that victims began to be recognised as actors with their own rights and needs. The women’s movement drew attention to sexual and domestic violence, leading to the establishment of the first women’s shelters. At the same time, the child protection movement highlighted abuse and neglect, and grassroots activism helped shift the focus from crime control to victim protection. These developments marked a turning point by embedding victims’ rights in broader debates on equality, social justice, and human dignity.

In the 1970s, victimology gained momentum with the establishment of International Victim Surveys and the rise of the victims’ rights movement. The United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of PowerThe capacity to influence others and shape outcomes, even against resistance. (1985) further institutionalized the field on an international level.

Forms of Victimisation

• Primary victimisation: direct harm caused by a criminal act.
• Secondary victimisation: additional trauma experienced through insensitive responses by authorities, institutions, or society.
• Tertiary victimisation: long-term societal consequences, such as stigmatization or marginalization.
• Repeat and revictimisation: multiple experiences of victimisation over time.

Victimisation in Popular Culture and Research

Popular culture has increasingly addressed issues of victimisation, often providing vivid illustrations of how victims experience harm beyond the initial crime. The Netflix series Unbelievable (2019) is a striking example. Based on true events, it depicts the case of a young woman whose report of sexual assault is met with disbelief, insensitivity, and institutional failure. The show highlights not only the trauma of the initial crime but also the damaging effects of secondary and tertiary victimisation.

Recent scholarship has analysed the series in the context of victimology. Gastón-Lorente and Gómez-Baceiredo (2022) argue that the dramatization serves as an ally to journalism by exposing rape trauma and secondary victimisation, while simultaneously challenging common rape myths. Hutchison (2023) examines how investigative practices portrayed in the series—such as repeated interrogations and questioning of the victim’s credibility—illustrate institutional mechanisms of secondary victimisation. Finally, an article in the Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the LawA system of codified rules and sanctions recognized by the state. (2020) discusses how Unbelievable corrects widespread misconceptions about sexual assault, including false accusations and expectations of how “real” victims should behave.

By linking entertainment media with criminological debates, Unbelievable demonstrates how popular culture can both reflect and shape our understanding of victimisation, providing a powerful resource for teaching and critical reflection within victimology.

Preventing Secondary Victimisation

While Unbelievable illustrates the devastating consequences of secondary victimisation, victimology also provides insights into how such harm can be prevented. A more victim-sensitive approach across institutions and social contexts is crucial:

• PoliceA state institution responsible for maintaining public order, enforcing laws, and preventing crime. and courts: Investigative procedures can be adapted to minimize re-traumatization. Best practices include video-recording victim statements to avoid repeated interrogations, allowing forensic evidence (e.g., medical examinations in hospitals) to be secured in a legally admissible way even before a formal complaint is filed, and ensuring that interviews are conducted empathetically—ideally by officers of the same gender as the victim. Investigators should refrain from unnecessary and implicitly accusatory questions such as “What were you wearing?” or “How much did you drink?”.
• Medical and forensic settings: Hospitals can play a crucial role in safeguarding evidence in a trauma-informed manner. Providing victims with the option to decide later whether to involve the police reduces pressure while preserving legal options.
• Journalists and media: Responsible reporting avoids sensationalism and victim-blaming. Instead, emphasis should be placed on contextualizing the crime, exposing systemic failures, and giving victims a credible voice.
• Social environment: Friends, families, and communities can either reinforce or alleviate trauma. Supportive responses—listening without judgment, affirming credibility, and avoiding stigmatization—are essential for preventing tertiary victimisation and social exclusion.

By implementing these measures, institutions and individuals alike can help ensure that victims are not harmed a second time by the very systems and relationships that should support them. In this sense, victimology provides both a critical lens and a practical guide for reducing harm and promoting justice.

The global #MeToo movement has further demonstrated how victims of sexual violence and harassment often face disbelief, stigmatization, or institutional silence. At the same time, it highlights how collective voices can challenge secondary victimisation and contribute to cultural change.

• Victim precipitation theory (von Hentig, Wolfgang): explores the role of victims in triggering or escalating crimes, though criticized for „victim-blaming.“

• Routine activity theory (Cohen & Felson, 1979): emphasises the convergence of motivated offenders, suitable targets, and lack of guardianship.
• Lifestyle-exposure theory (Hindelang, Gottfredson & Garofalo, 1978): links risk of victimisation to everyday lifestyle patterns.

• Critical victimology (Mawby & Walklate, 1994): highlights structural inequalities, power relations, and the social construction of victimhood.

International Victim Surveys

Since the 1980s, the International CrimeActs or omissions that violate criminal laws and are punishable by the state. Victims Survey (ICVS) has provided comparative data on victimisation patterns across countries. Conceived as a complement to police statistics, the ICVS captures the “dark figure” of crime by documenting incidents not reported to authorities. Using standardised questionnaires, respondents are asked about their experiences of crime over a defined period, thus allowing systematic cross-national comparisons.

Over successive waves, the survey has revealed striking differences between countries and regions. For example, while burglary and car theft are frequently reported across jurisdictions, offences such as domestic violence or sexual harassment often remain underreported, highlighting the limits of official statistics. The ICVS has also shown that levels of victimisation do not always correspond to incarceration rates or punitive criminal justice policies, providing important evidence for international policy debates.

Beyond the global ICVS, regional initiatives such as the European Crime and Safety Survey (EU ICS) have further refined the methodology. The data are used by organisations like the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and Eurostat to inform international crime trends and victimisation reports. However, scholars have also criticised the surveys for methodological challenges, including translation issues, cultural differences in reporting, and the underrepresentation of vulnerable groups. Despite these limitations, international victim surveys remain a cornerstone of comparative victimology, offering unique insights into the prevalence, distribution, and reporting of crime worldwide.

Victims in the Criminal Justice System

The role of victims has changed significantly in modern criminal justice. Historically marginalized, victims are now increasingly recognized through victim impact statements, compensation schemes, and victim support services. Yet, tensions remain between victims’ rights, defendants’ rights, and the principles of due process.

In addition to formal mechanisms such as victim compensation or support services, some jurisdictions have introduced approaches that give victims a more active role in the justice process. Restorative justice approaches emphasise dialogue, accountability, and reparation instead of punishment. While restorative justice is discussed in detail in a separate section, it is important to note here that victimology has provided much of the theoretical and empirical groundwork for its development.

Victim Support and Policy

Many countries have established victim support services, ranging from crisis intervention to counselling and financial compensation. On the European level, the Victims’ Rights Directive (2012/29/EU) laid down minimum standards for the rights, support, and protection of victims of crime. National approaches vary considerably: in the United Kingdom, for instance, the Criminal Injuries Compensation Authority administers financial redress, while in Germany the Opferentschädigungsgesetz provides a statutory framework for compensation. Beyond financial aspects, specialised NGOs and victim support organisations offer practical and psychological assistance, often through hotlines or online platforms. Increasingly, one-stop centres have been established to provide victims with legal, medical, and psychosocial services in one place, reducing the burden of navigating fragmented institutions. Internationally, organisations such as Victim Support Europe and the World SocietyA group of individuals connected by shared institutions, culture, and norms. of Victimology play a central role in advocacy, training, and policy development, ensuring that victims’ needs remain visible on a global level.

Criticism and Challenges

Despite its achievements, victimology faces several critical challenges. One recurring critique is that the field has often focused disproportionately on certain categories of victims—such as women and children—while neglecting others, including victims of state violence, corporate crime, environmental harm, or hate crime. Critical victimologists also argue that the expansion of victim rights can be politically instrumentalised, serving as justification for punitive “law and order” policies rather than genuine support for victims. Another concern lies in the risk of victim-blaming, especially when theories such as lifestyle-exposure or victim precipitation are misapplied without attention to broader social structures. New forms of digital victimisation—from cyberstalking to online harassment—pose additional challenges for research, legislation, and support services. Finally, intersectional perspectives highlight that experiences of victimisation vary greatly depending on gender, ethnicity, social class, or migration status. Addressing these complexities requires more inclusive research and policy frameworks that avoid simplistic generalisations.

Conclusion

Victimology and victimisation are central to criminology because they reframe the focus of analysis from the offender to the harmed individual and society. Over the past decades, empirical research and policy reforms have contributed to improved victim recognition, stronger rights, and better support services. Yet, unresolved tensions remain—between victims’ needs and defendants’ rights, between individual cases and structural forms of harm, and between support and political instrumentalisation. Looking ahead, victimology will continue to broaden its horizons. Green victimology, which examines the victims of environmental degradation, and research on digital victimisation illustrate the field’s growing relevance in a globalised, technologised world. By combining empirical insights with normative debates on justice, human rights, and social responsibility, victimology remains an evolving and interdisciplinary discipline with significant implications for both theory and practice.

Key Literature

• Cohen, L. & Felson, M. (1979). Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach. American Sociological Review, 44(4), 588–608.
• Gastón-Lorente, L. & Gómez-Baceiredo, B. (2022). Fiction as an ally to make journalism more believable: rape, trauma and secondary victimization in the Netflix miniseries Unbelievable. Feminist Media Studies, 23(11), 3291–3307. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2022.2084633
• Hindelang, M., Gottfredson, M. & Garofalo, J. (1978). Victims of Personal Crime: An Empirical Foundation for a Theory of Personal Victimization. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.
• Hutchison, K. N. (2023). Analyzing Media Representations of Rape Investigations and Police Procedural Failures in Netflix’s Unbelievable. Master’s Thesis, University of the Pacific. Available at: https://scholarlycommons.pacific.edu/uop_etds/5052
• Levine, J. (2020). Unbelievable: Myths and Realities of Sexual Assault. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 48(1), 138–145. https://jaapl.org/content/48/1/138
• Mawby, R. I. & Walklate, S. (1994). Critical Victimology. London: Sage.
• Mendelsohn, B. (1956). A New Branch of Bio-Psycho-Social Science: Victimology. Revue Internationale de Criminologie et de Police Technique, 10, 782–802.
• Von Hentig, H. (1948). The Criminal and His Victim. New Haven: Yale University Press.
• Walklate, S. (2017). Criminology: The Basics. 3rd ed. London: Routledge.
• World Society of Victimology. (2023). www.worldsocietyofvictimology.org