Sociology & Criminology for a Changing World
Deterrence theory explains crime as the result of rational decision-making, where individuals weigh the expected costs of punishment against the potential benefits of offending. The central aim of deterrence is to prevent crime by increasing the perceived risks associated with criminal behavior. Key Points Deterrence Theory Main Proponents: Cesare Beccaria, Jeremy Bentham, Franz von Liszt,
Rational Choice Theory explains crime as the result of deliberate, goal-oriented decision-making. Offenders weigh expected benefits against anticipated costs and choose to commit crime when it appears to maximize their personal utility. Key Points Rational Choice Theory Main Proponents: Gary S. Becker, Derek Cornish, Ronald Clarke First Formulations: 1960s–1980s Country of Origin: United States, United
Classical criminology explains crime as the result of rational decision-making by free and responsible individuals. The Classical School of Criminology emphasizes deterrence, proportional punishment, and equality before the law as the foundation of modern criminal justice systems. Key Points Classical Criminology Main Proponents: Cesare Beccaria, Jeremy Bentham, John Howard, Samuel Romilly, John Anselm von Feuerbach,
Techniques of Neutralization explain how offenders justify or rationalize their deviant behavior, allowing them to violate social norms while maintaining a self-image as essentially moral individuals. Key Points Techniques of Neutralization Main Proponents: Gresham M. Sykes, David Matza First Publication: 1957–1958 Country of Origin: United States Core Idea: Offenders use learned techniques to neutralize guilt
Theory of Differential Opportunities combines insights from learning, subcultural, anomie, and social disorganization theories to explain why not everyone exposed to strain or blocked opportunities turns to crime. It emphasizes that access to illegitimate means varies and shapes the pathways into criminal behavior. Key Points Differential Opportunity Theory Main Proponents: Richard A. Cloward and Lloyd
Social Learning Theory explains criminal behavior as a learned process in which deviant actions are reinforced when their positive consequences outweigh those of normative, law-abiding behavior. Drawing on principles of operant conditioning and observational learning, this theory builds on and expands Sutherland’s differential association framework. Key Points Social Learning Theory Main Proponents: Ronald L. Akers,